Abstract: When most Americans think of Chinese cinema, they think of movies like Ang Lee’s 2000 martial arts epic “Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon.”¹ Indeed, “Crouching Tiger” is one of the most successful international movies at the US box office.² The film’s blend of mystical martial arts and images of historical China gave American audiences insight into a culture very different from their own, and the fighting sequences were choreographed well enough to satisfy Hollywood standards of action. This successful formula has since been replicated in several films sent for wide-release in the US but is not quite representative of the rich cinematography of Chinese filmmaking. Like in the West, Chinese directors make films for a variety of reasons, and they vary widely in genre, subject matter, style, and even language! Why is it that only big-budget martial arts movies are targeted at American audiences?

Western Audiences and Eastern Films

Few Chinese films make it to American viewers, and the ones that do almost always fit a certain criterion. Buying the rights to release a movie in the US can be expensive, and these costs coupled with the expenses of translating foreign movies mean that companies look for elements that have been successful in the past. As a result, Western audiences now expect a certain degree of this exoticism and otherness when viewing movies produced in China. Instead of being classified into categories such as “drama” or “action,” Chinese movies are simply that – Chinese. In America this classification is not limited to movies from China. Look at the genres in a local video store. Would a movie from France be classified as drama or Foreign? Though there is thought to categorize certain movies from Asia, as demonstrated by the “Martial Arts” category, most Chinese films are simply identified as coming from a foreign nation. Then again, there really isn’t all that much deviation among the Chinese movies that reach Western audiences. Few movies pass the formulaic filter that determines which movies studios believe audiences will pay to see. The movies that do make it over usually involve martial arts, mysticism, and images of what Westerners take to be historical China. Since most of the Chinese movies that show up in America contain very similar elements, perhaps it is not so strange that they are pushed onto the “Foreign Films” shelf.

A good example of this filter system at work can be seen in the reception of Zhang Yimou’s 2004 film, “Hero.”³ The movie was well- reviewed in the US, with critics comparing its visual style of story-telling to “Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon.” In China, however, the movie was largely regarded as historically inaccurate and overly political, while the film’s final message was derided as an attempt to appeal to the Chinese government by supplying the logic to justify actions such as the Tiananmen massacre of 1989 or the goal of unification with Taiwan.⁴ Regardless of outside views of these issues, Chinese critics were not pleased. Similarly, the film’s overly dramatic depictions of Chinese culture (like the image of calligraphy students continuing to practice their art in the face of being engulfed in arrows), while seen as fascinating and authentic images of an ancient culture to Western audiences, appear almost silly to anyone with knowledge of Chinese history. Hero adhered to a formula that has proven successful at the American box office but was poorly reviewed in China.

Since the Fifth Generation, Western audiences have been drawn to films that romanticize China as exotic and different. This trend began with Chen Kaige’s “Yellow Earth,”⁵ the film which is considered to have ushered in the era of the Fifth Generation directors. The film contained numerous themes that would continually resurface. For example, compare Cuiqiao of “Yellow Earth” with Jiu’er from “Red Sorghum.”⁶ Both of these characters demonstrate the theme of a female protagonist attempting to break out of an oppressive, traditional social role. These characters succeed in escaping but die in doing so. “Yellow Earth” received a good deal of positive international attention. Critics extolled its portrayal of Chinese customs and landscape, yet, as Peter Hitchcock explains in his article “The Aesthetics of Alienation, or China’s ‘Fifth Generation,’” “the landscape at the heart of the film is itself ‘alien’ to the average urban Chinese at the same time that it may signify ‘Chineseness’ to foreign audiences.”⁷

Orientalism

This romanticizing of Eastern cultures by Western countries is referred to as orientalism.⁸ This term, famously described by literary theorist Edward Said, translates to a somewhat patronizing view of another culture as less advanced. While works written from an orientalist perspective are not necessarily intentionally misleading, they portray cultures in a manner that is based out of a romantic image of exoticism. This manifests itself in Chinese movies by making Chinese customs appear backward or primitive, especially compared with the more “enlightened” Western world. Audiences, having seen movies that portray the rudimentary and remote nature of Chinese landscape, formulate a view of China based on images of ancient cultural practices and over-dramatized social aspects. The atmosphere of movies like “Yellow Earth” and “Red Sorghum” provide examples of how Chinese directors played to Western conceptions of Chinese society to ensure positive receptions with international critics. While highly acclaimed at film festivals, these films portray certain aspects of Chinese life that are just as alien to most Chinese people as they are to American audiences. Saying that the barren landscapes of “Yellow Earth” are the norm in China is like saying that the entire United States is covered in Texas brush!

Critics of “Red Sorghum” explained that the kind of scenery present in the movie is not consistent with reality. The title sorghum does not even look like how it is portrayed in the film. Especially in the 80’s when directors were trying to gain attention in order to enter the international film community, they often played to Western audiences’ ignorance of Chinese culture by exaggerating elements of Chinese life or by playing to international movie-goers’ expectations of exotic “Chinese-ness”. As noted by Claire Huot in China’s New Cultural Scene, “The Customs presented—from the jolting of the wedding sedan to the red sorghum wine—are all inventions as Zhang himself admits.”⁹

Yingjing Zhang describes the evolution of fabricated exoticism as part of the trend of formulaic movie design that emerged as Chinese directors sought to appeal to Western audiences. “These films demonstrate that by the early 1990’s many Chinese directors were full aware that a film most likely to satisfy Western expectations (or aesthetic taste) should include formulaic but nonetheless essential or magical ingredients….”¹⁰ These ingredients include common elements like gender-based oppression, exotic rituals that play to the sense of Eastern culture as ancient and mystical, and rebellion against domineering regimes. Also contributing to these notions is a pervasive, internalized view of Third-World culture as inferior. For Western viewers, it is assumed that all individuals living in a government that they perceive as benighted and un-democratic would want to rebel and escape into a situation more similar to their own. It is important to remember that just because China is a Communist state, not every Chinese citizen wants to “escape” to the more liberalized West.

This is not to say that it is wrong to believe that certain old traditions are archaic or are inconsistent with contemporary societal values. It is incorrect to associate these exaggerated themes with the entirety of a sophisticated culture that is very different from the images we see at the movies. Would it be correct for someone from China after watching “Harold and Kumar go to White Castle” to assume that all American college students are obsessed with sex, drugs, and fast food? Well, maybe that’s not such a good example…

Now with a better idea of the factors that determine what Chinese movies reach American audiences, you are probably wondering, “What about all the movies that haven’t made it over?” Here are a few Chinese movies that have missed the American radar.

A World Without Thieves (Tian Xia Wu Zei)¹¹

“A World Without Thieves” is the story of two professional thieves, Wang Bo (Andy Lau, who also starred in the other big money-maker in 2004 in China, “House of Flying Daggers”) and Wang Li (Rene Liu). Wang Li wants to get out of the thieving business and start an honest career. She leaves Wang Bo and decides that, in order to redeem herself, she must protect a naïve country boy holding 60,0000 Yuan from another gang of thieves led by the honorable but insidious Uncle Bill (You Ge). Wang Bo reunites with Wang Li and agrees to help protect the boy, but he, too, is after the boy’s money rather than looking to reform. The two gangs fight it out over the course of a long train ride.

“A World Without Thieves” did extremely well at the Chinese box office, making over 100 million Yuan.¹² The film provides an interesting blend of action and drama. The presentation of the thieves’ competitions is both suspenseful and creative, and setting the events on a moving train adds a sense of urgency to the conflict. Feng Xiaogang is subtle with his use of action, pushing the plot as the central element to the movie rather than gimmicky stunts or special effects. Violence is also not a driving factor, as the interactions between the thieves are mostly exercises in psychological expertise, pitting Wang Bo against the minds of his adversaries. On the flipside, the romantic tension between Wang Bo and Wang Li is quite satisfying, as are the clever injections of philosophy. The movie asks questions about human nature and honor that push forward the story in a very uncontrived manner.

Why didn’t “A World Without Thieves” make it to the US? It’s hard to say for sure, but the movie’s subtle pleasures definitely stand out from the standard formula of high-action movies like “Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon” or “Hero.” Perhaps movie companies were afraid that Americans wouldn’t have the patience to see a slower but more sophisticated film with subtitles. The movie did, however, win a Golden Horse Award for Best Screenplay Adaptation and was nominated for Best Action Choreography, Best Editing, and Best Picture.

The Promise (Wu Ji)¹³

Set in a fictional fantasy world vaguely reminiscent of historic China, “The Promise” is the story of the slave Kunlun (Dong-Kun Jang), General Guangming (Hiroyuki Sanada), and Princess Qingcheng (Cecilia Cheung). As a child, Quingcheng entered a compact with a goddess that in exchange for always having the comforts of life and the admiration of men, every man she loved would be taken from her. Years later, now a princess, Qingcheng is saved by a masked man in crimson armor. She falls in love with her savior, General Guangming, but knows that they will inevitably be parted. Simultaneously, Kunlun, the slave of Guangming, searches for answers to his own mysterious past.

Though this film was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Foreign Language Film, it was widely met with negative reviews in China, and many US critics also gave it poor ratings. Even so, the movie grossed 146 million Yuan, making it the most successful movie at the Chinese box office in 2005.¹⁴ Production costs for “The Promise” were reported at a whopping $35 million, the highest of any Chinese movie to date.¹⁵ Still, US critics complained that the movie’s special effects looked “shoddy” when compared with contemporary Hollywood films.¹⁶ The plot itself is hazy and often leaves the audience questioning what is going on. The scenery and costumes, however, are both imaginative and elaborate and present an interesting blend of traditional and fantasy elements. Likewise, it is worth noting that though the setting of the movie is ostensibly a parallel to ancient China, two of the movie’s three protagonists are not actually Chinese; Dong-Kun is Korean and Sanada is Japanese. Like the rest of the movie, one interpretation is as good as another, but it could be that director Chen made this choice to reiterate that the setting of the movie is not meant to be historically accurate but rather a fictional world comprised of many cultural influences.

While visually entertaining, “The Promise” is a bit muddled and can not really be considered an example of fine Chinese cinema. Still, its blend of action and exotic images could mean that American audiences will see a version of the movie in the future.

Foreign Movies in China

As of the beginning of 2006, the Chinese film industry was the third largest in the world after the US and India.¹⁷ While Chinese movies are pulling in more, domestically and internationally, than ever before, foreign movies still represent a large part of the Chinese cinematic scene. If Americans go to see Chinese movies like “Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon” and “Fearless,” what type of foreign movies do people in China enjoy? In 2005, “Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire” was the highest grossing foreign movie in China, earning a reported 93.9 million Yuan ($11.7 million).¹⁸ “Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith” and “Mr. & Mrs. Smith” were the second and third place Hollywood movies, earning 75.4 million Yuan ($9.3 million) and 62 million Yuan ($7.6 million) respectively.¹⁹ According to a Xinhua report, Chinese movie-goers appreciate high-tech Hollywood special effects and filmmakers look to American movies for production and distribution techniques.

Peter Jackson’s “King Kong” reached a five-year-high gross for an imported movie after its release in China on Janurary 12, 2006. The big ape brought in over 100 million Yuan ($12.5 million), which, though a comparatively large amount for a release in China, was still shy of the 2001 release of “Pearl Harbor” which generated about 105 million Yuan ($13 million). Only two other imported movies have made over 100 million Yuan: “True Lies” and “Titanic,” with the latter bringing in an astounding 320 million Yuan ($40 million). “King Kong” was lauded by Liu Shusen, vice president of the film distribution company Huaxia, for its “high artistic quality and production level.”²⁰

In 2005, total Chinese box office revenues came out to 2 billion Yuan (about $250 million). Of this amount, 60 percent came from domestic movie sales.²¹ This means that foreign movies still comprise a large amount of the film industry in China. Compare these figures with those for the US. In 2005, the total US box office revenue was $8.837 billion.²² Another interesting comparison has to do with the number of foreign movies that are allowed to reach Chinese audiences. The Chinese government’s State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television (SARFT) puts a limit on the number of movies that are allowed to be imported into China—twenty per year—and also limits the amount of money that a foreign film studio can get out of the box office.²³ Warner Brothers pulled out of a large investment directly because of these regulatory changes.²⁴ The company operated six theaters and had plans to build as many as 40 more by 2008.

Film Piracy

Another problem leading to many film-industry woes is the incredibly high rate of movie piracy in China. According to the Motion Picture Association of America, China has the world’s largest film piracy rate of 90 percent (determined by comparing the amount of legitimately accrued revenue to the estimated revenue lost due to piracy) which translates to an estimated loss of $244 million in 2005. A study prepared by the LEK explains that while China places numerous restrictions on movie-producing studios, “pirates operate unfettered and outside the law.”²⁵ The piracy is not solely limited to the kind of street vending of bootleg DVDs, though this practice is rampant. Chinese television networks also air movies without paying royalties or gaining the permission of the filmmakers. According to the Xinhua news agency, “to date [August 2006], one of the only fines levied has been against the China Education TV Station, which was ordered by government officials to pay $6,250 to the CCTV Movie channel for airing one of its films.”²⁶ Domestically, Chinese movie makers also end up losing money as a result of this piracy. Some sources estimate that every year Chinese movie producers lose as much as 60 to 75 million Yuan ($7.5 to 9.4 million).²⁷ Given that Chinese movie makers have also started putting pressure on the government to increase its enforcement of copyright laws, one hopes that it will only be a matter of time before the Chinese government begins a serious crackdown on film piracy.

Though revenues like these may seem low when compared with movie grosses in the US, there are a number of factors contributing to China’s turnout at the cinema. For example, China has far fewer movie theaters than the United States, with 1,243 cinema complexes comprising 2,668 screens – only a small fraction (barely 10 percent) of the number in America. Not only are theaters in short supply, but tickets are also fairly expensive. With pirated DVDs going for between five and ten Yuan ($.65 to $1.30) on the street, it’s no wonder why China’s movie attendance is so low. Interestingly, several American film distributors have been looking to supplant the sales of pirated DVDs by providing their own films at severely reduced prices in China. Twentieth Century Fox is hoping to make DVDs available for as little as 20 to 25 Yuan ($2.60 to $3.25).²⁸ Though very cheap compared to the average cost of new DVDs in America, this price is still a far cry from the low price of pirated merchandise. While an innovative tactic to fight sales of counterfeit DVDs, it seems unlikely that this strategy of selling authorized copies will succeed. Without serious support from the Chinese government, it is debatable that American companies will ever be able to thwart the Chinese piracy industry.

Imax—Novelty or Money-maker?

Interestingly, Imax—short for Image Maximum—venues are relatively successful in China. According to an article in the London Times, China, as of November 2006, accounted for one-tenth of all Imax screen revenue.²⁹ The company plans on opening 17 new theaters over two years and will focus on “second-tier cities such as Kungming, Zhengzhou and Shenyang.” Why, when most Western film industry companies are expressing their frustration with the Chinese market, is Imax doing so well? Whereas the experience of attending movie theaters is often foregone in place of watching bootleg copies of films at home on relatively inexpensive big-screen televisions, the novelty of viewing a film on a colossal screen with a similarly intense sound system and, often, 3-D features is an event that is hard to simulate in the space of one’s own domicile. It is also worth pointing out that Imax films usually run at special venues (museums or science centers) though increasingly they are being installed in mainstream cinemas for the grandiose presentation of big-budget films.

While the current income of Imax screens in China would suggest the possibility of success for new installations, there is still much uncertainty as to whether Chinese movie-goers will continue to be willing to shell out the cost of tickets which run an average of 30 percent more than regular tickets.

The Future

While cinema in China has a complex history, its future is still uncertain. Due to rampant piracy and governmental restraints on the number of foreign films entering China and the amount of revenue foreign companies can earn, it is doubtful that international companies will attempt any serious expansion in the near future. Unless the Chinese government seriously addresses these problems, film studios will continue to seek other outlets for distribution. On the flipside, piracy is also hurting China’s domestic movie culture as producers simply cannot afford to create big-budget pictures. Still, with China’s booming economy and gradual adoption of policies creating more economic openness, it is reasonable to assume an optimistic view of the future of Chinese film culture.

List of Vocabulary Terms:

Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon—Ang Lee’s 2000 phenomenon, “Crouching Tiger” as it is commonly referred to won 4 Oscars was nominated for 6 others including the coveted best director and best picture. The movie grossed an astounding $128 million in the US alone and went on to become an international hit. This success can be attributed to a combination of brilliantly choreographed and executed martial arts sequences, as well as amazing visuals and a memorable musical score. “Crouching Tiger” also appealed to the Western audience’s desire for exotic images of Eastern culture.

Hero—Directed by legendary Fifth Generation director Zhang Yimou, “Hero” came to American audiences in 2003. “Hero” was very well received in America despite widely negative reviews in China. The movie followed on the coattails of “Crouching Tiger” by fulfilling the “Chinese movie” niche and was also partly popularized by attaching Quentin Tarantino—a popular American director who had recently gained widespread name recognition due to his success with “Kill Bill”—to the title. Though Tarantino had no role in the production of the movie, he did facilitate its release in North America. “Hero” was nominated for the Oscar for best foreign language film and received many other laurels internationally despite being criticized in its country of origin.

Yellow Earth—This movie is widely agreed as the starting point of the era of the Fifth Generation director. Directed by Chen Kaige in 1984 with Zhang Yimou as cinematographer, the movie features images of barren landscapes and dramatized rituals, establishing the expectation of such imagery in future Chinese movies. “Yellow Earth” won best feature film at the 1985 Hawaii International Film Festival, making it the first Chinese movie to gain international attention in decades.

Red Sorghum—Banned in China due to political undertones criticizing the Communist Party, “Red Sorghum” was directed by Zhang Yimou and released in 1987. “Red Sorghum” won a Golden Bear at the Berlin International Film Festival and won best film and nominations for three other awards at the Beijing Gold Rooster Awards.

Orientalism—Refers, in this case, to the depiction of Eastern culture by Westerners in a manner that inherently draws out some kind of patronizing view of the culture as exotic and primitive.

SARFT–The State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television is an administrative body within the Chinese government that oversees television, radio, and movie guidelines within China and implements policies that affect the regulation of foreign movies within China.

Piracy—In this context, refers to the practice of selling or showing movies without authorization by their makers and without paying royalties. In China, this is most commonly seen in street vendors selling illegal copies of movies—sometimes before they are even out of theaters, but the practice of some television stations of showing movies without consent is also a form of piracy.

Bootleg DVDs—Another way of saying that a movie is pirated merchandise. Usually these DVDs are filmed from home camcorders taken inside movie theaters, but increasingly movies are downloaded off of internet sources and burned onto discs.

Imax—Short for Image Maximum, Imax is the name of a film format that measures at least 22 meters wide and 16 meters high – significantly larger than standard film screens.

For footnotes accompanying the article, please see attached document.

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